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Blood and Tissue Resources

Guidelines for Transfusion Therapy of Infants from Birth to Four Months of Age

New York State Council on Human Blood and Transfusion Services
Transfusion Practices Committee
Wadsworth Center for Laboratories and Research
New York State Department of Health
Committee Members

Guidelines (.pdf - 159KB)

Second Edition
2004

• Introduction
• Pretransfusion Testing in Infants
• Transfusion Therapy Guidelines
• Special Considerations
• References
• Committee Members

INTRODUCTION

New York State's population numbers more than 18 million people served by 249 hospitals. Some 871,000 units of red blood cell (RBC) components are transfused annually in the State, along with approximately 582,000 units of other components. The New York State Council on Human Blood and Transfusion Services, appointed by the Governor, is composed of eight experts in transfusion medicine and a representative of the public. The Council, with the approval of the Commissioner of Health, determines policies and standards for blood collection and transfusion in the State. Some of these standards are promulgated as regulations by the Department of Health; others are issued as guidelines and generally set the standard of practice in the State's blood banking community.

Recently published guidelines for pediatric transfusion, developed by three experts in pediatric transfusion medicine, served as a primary reference for this document (Roseff SD, Luban NLC, Manno CS. Guidelines for assessing appropriateness of pediatric transfusion. Transfusion 2002;42:1398-413). Several earlier pediatric transfusion guidelines also were reviewed, as well as subspecialty articles in the field. In comparing these publications, it is clear that, in pediatric as in adult transfusion, a firm consensus is lacking regarding appropriate hemoglobin concentrations at which to transfuse RBCs to certain patient subgroups. A trend appears to be developing toward allowing lower hemoglobin concentrations in stable asymptomatic neonates.

Another trend is an emphasis on informed consent for transfusion. New York State does not have a standard consent form or a requirement for the frequency for which informed consent should be obtained and documented. Specifications for informed consent are the purview of each transfusion facility and its risk management advisors. However, it is recommended that at least a note be placed on the patient's chart, signed by the transfusing physician, attesting that the indications, risks (including possible, fatal adverse effects), benefits, estimated number of, and alternatives to transfusions have been explained to the patient or a surrogate. Documentation of the indications should include pertinent patient signs and symptoms, as well as hematological data. The patient's (or surrogate's) consent or refusal also should be acknowledged, and documented in the chart or on an appropriate form, consistent with the policies of the transfusion facility. In the case of an infant, a parent or other legally authorized adult should act as surrogate. Follow-up of transfusion refusal should be consistent with the urgency of the need for transfusion, the facility's policies, the State laws applicable to the patient's age and other circumstances relevant to the specific patient.

These guidelines are intended to be clear and concise, yet comprehensive in addressing the most important aspects of transfusion therapy for infants. They are designed to be of value to the transfusion medicine community, as well as to pediatricians, pediatric residents, and medical students. The Blood Services Committee endeavored to produce a document that would serve as an educational tool, as well as a reference source. It is understood that these guidelines will need to be revised as new information and advances become available in the field.

In the first four months of life, infants require repeated transfusions more frequently than older children and adults. This increased transfusion need usually stems from: (i) large-volume phlebotomy for blood tests relative to the limited available blood volume; (ii) postnatal physiologic anemia frequently encountered in conditions involving cardiopulmonary compromise; (iii) limited or delayed responsiveness of infant bone marrow to various hematologic stresses; and (iv) prolonged hospital stays for premature infants with very low birth weight.

Transfusion of blood components presents potential risks with more adverse outcomes for ill, high-risk infants than for older recipients. Transfusion-transmitted infectious disease, particularly cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection; bacterial contamination; possible immunosuppressive effects of transfusion; alloimmunization to red cell, white cell and platelet antigens; and the potential for transfusion-associated graft-vs-host disease are all of concern, and are associated with significant long-term comorbidity. For these reasons, an interest has arisen in erythropoietin as an alternative to RBC transfusion for the treatment of anemia of prematurity. However, erythropoietin's long-term safety, efficacy and cost effectiveness have not yet been well established in this context. RBC transfusion guidelines are now more conservative than in the past, and the previous practice of replacing blood loss secondary to phlebotomy, volume-for-volume, is now less prevalent. At the same time, increased emphasis has been placed on microsampling, volume-efficient testing, and careful monitoring of blood samples expended for testing. If repeated small volume transfusions are needed, every effort must be made to reduce the number of donor exposures per infant.

Infant transfusion therapy must be individualized, based on each infant's clinical status and on the resources of the transfusing institution. These guidelines set forth acceptable clinical circumstances under which transfusion may be given, but are not intended to be absolute indications for transfusion. Special clinical circumstances not covered by the guidelines may make transfusion therapy acceptable, and indications included in these guidelines may not necessarily be clinically beneficial for a given patient.

I. PRETRANSFUSION TESTING OF INFANTS

A. An initial pretransfusion specimen from the infant must be tested for ABO group and Rh type, and screened for unexpected antibodies.

Notes: A heelstick specimen from the infant is preferable to a cord blood specimen, to allay concerns about potential cord blood misidentification and Wharton's jelly contamination.

Mother's serum or plasma may also be used for the initial antibody screen as an alternative to an infant specimen.

B. If no unexpected antibodies are detected initially in either the mother or infant, the RBC unit is ABO-compatible with the infant and mother and either Rh-negative or of the same Rh group as the infant:

1. repeat ABO/Rh grouping is not required;
2. repeat antibody screening is not required; and
3. compatibility testing is not required.

Notes: If (maternal) IgG anti-A or anti-B antibodies are detected, ABO-compatible cells should be transfused until antibody is no longer demonstrable in the infant's serum; it is not necessary to perform compatibility tests on these units.

If a non-group O infant has received blood components containing alloagglutinins directed against his/her own A and/or B antigens, and if subsequent donor RBCs selected for transfusion are not group O, the infant's serum or plasma should be tested for anti-A, anti-B, and anti-A,B antibodies.

C. Compatibility testing is required only under the following conditions (the mother's serum may be used for the compatibility test under conditions 1 and 2):

1. unexpected antibody is detected in the infant's or mother's serum;
2. the infant has a positive direct antiglobulin test result; or
3. the infant is to receive RBC transfusion incompatible with the mother's serum (the compatibility test must then be performed with the infant's serum, including antiglobulin phase).

D. For infants with ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn, only group O RBCs should be transfused until compatibility tests are nonreactive with ABO-specific units.

E. For plasma and platelet transfusions, infants should receive ABO-specific components whenever possible, to avoid transfusing plasma antibody incompatible with the infant's red cell antigens.

II. TRANSFUSION THERAPY GUIDELINES FOR INFANTS

A. RBC transfusions may be performed to improve tissue oxygenation under the circumstances described in the Appendix on page 14 of this document.

Asymptomatic anemia of prematurity is not an indication for transfusion. Blood loss through phlebotomy no longer is replaced volume-for-volume.

B. Exchange Transfusions

Severe hemolytic disease of the newborn or progressive hyperbilirubinemia posing a risk for kernicterus (especially in the preterm, acidotic/asphyxiated infant) are the usual indications for exchange transfusion. However, early use of phototherapy, to convert skin-bound unconjugated bilirubin to a water-soluble excretable form has resulted in diminished need for and use of exchange transfusion to relieve hyperbilirubinemia.

Notes: Select fresh (up to seven-days-old), irradiated, hemoglobin S-negative and CMV-seronegative or leukoreduced CPD, CPDA-1, or additive solution (with supernatant removed) packed RBCs, reconstituted with fresh frozen plasma or albumin for the exchange. If there is concern regarding renal insufficiency or hyperkalemia when using RBCs irradiated prior to storage, it may be advisable to use even fresher RBCs, and/or washed RBCs, and/or to transfuse more slowly than usual. Insufficient published data are available regarding the safety of stored irradiated RBCs ≤ seven days old for exchange transfusion for infants with risk factors for hyperkalemia.

The RBCs should be group O or other ABO group-compatible with the infant and mother, Rh-negative or Rh-identical with the infant, and lack RBC antigens to which the mother has made alloantibodies. RBCs should be crossmatch- compatible with the infant's serum or plasma. If an adequate infant sample is unavailable, or in the presence of significant maternal red cell alloantibodies, it may be desirable or necessary to demonstrate crossmatch compatibility with maternal serum or plasma, and/or with the infant's eluate (if the infant's direct antiglobulin test is positive).

The plasma should be of the same ABO group as the infant's or group AB, and the RBCs are usually reconstituted to the desired hematocrit, generally to approximately 45 percent.

Blood components should be irradiated for exchange transfusions. This is particularly important if a directed donor unit from a blood relative is to be used, or if the infant and the donor are members of the same genetically homogeneous group.

Premature (< 37 weeks gestation), low-birth weight (birth weight less than 2.5 kg), and/or sick infants have been exchange transfused for bilirubin concentrations under 20 mg/dL. The American Academy of Pediatrics makes some specific recommendations for this group and, in general, suggests that exchange transfusions should be done only by trained personnel in an appropriately equipped neonatal intensive care unit.

C. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO)

ECMO is a form of heart-lung bypass for treating reversible pulmonary disease or temporary cardiac malfunction. Large-volume RBC and platelet transfusions may be required.

The above recommendations regarding blood components for exchange transfusion also apply to ECMO. See comments on page 5 regarding platelet transfusion.

D. Intrauterine Transfusions

The administration of intrauterine red blood cells should be performed at institutions with high-risk obstetrical services experienced in this procedure. This procedure is usually considered for severe fetal anemia due to intrauterine blood loss of either a hemorrhagic or immunohematologic nature, such as severe Rh hemolytic disease. RBCs administered should be as fresh as possible, group O, hemoglobin S negative, crossmatch compatible with the mother's serum, and have an adjusted hematocrit and red cell mass intended to achieve the desired therapeutic effect while minimizing the volume used. Additionally, the RBCs should be CMV-safe (seronegative and/or leukoreduced) and irradiated.

E. Platelet Transfusions

Note: In view of the relatively high incidence of clinically silent intracerebral hemorrhage in premature (< 37 weeks gestation) thrombocytopenic infants, radiologic or sonographic determination of the presence or absence of intracranial hemorrhage is crucial. The presence of intracranial or other life-threatening hemorrhage should be emergently treated with platelet transfusion while the underlying etiology is being investigated and other therapy is instituted.

1. Non-immune thrombocytopenia - indications

1. platelet count <20-30,000/µL (20-30 x 10⁹/L) in infants with failure of production;
2. platelet count <50,000/µL (50 x 10⁹/L) with bleeding, or prior to nonneurologic invasive procedures or minor surgery;
3. platelet count <100,000/µL (100 x 10⁹/L) prior to neurological invasive procedures, cardiovascular or neurologic surgery, or other major surgery;
4. platelet count <100,000/µL (100 x 10⁹/L) with a recent (within one to two weeks) intracranial hemorrhage;
5. qualitative platelet defect with bleeding, prior to invasive procedures or surgery, or with unexplained excessive bleeding during cardiopulmonary bypass; and
6. platelet count <80-100,000/µL (80-100 x 10⁹/L) prior to and during ECMO therapy, or with unexplained excessive bleeding during the procedure.

2. Immune thrombocytopenia

Neonatal immune thrombocytopenia is caused by maternal anti-platelet antibodies, either auto- or allo(iso)-immune anti-platelet antibodies, which cross the placenta and interact with fetal platelets.

In general, treatment should be definitely instituted for a platelet count <20,000/µL; possibly instituted for a platelet count <50,000/µL; and is not indicated for platelet counts >50,000/µL.

1. Neonatal alloimmune (isoimmune) thrombocytopenia: The treatment of choice is matched antigen-negative platelets, usually washed or resuspended; irradiated maternal platelets; and/or intravenous immune globulin (IGIV) with or without steroids. If appropriately processed maternal platelets are not immediately available, treatment should be initiated as for thrombocytopenia due to autoantibodies.
2. Thrombocytopenia due to maternal autoantibodies: IGIV with or without steroids, is generally useful to increase the platelet count and to prolong platelet survival in this self-limiting disorder. Platelet transfusions are not indicated in the absence of life-threatening bleeding.

Note: In the case of postpartum emergency donation of a mother's platelets to her infant, infectious disease testing may be waived with the written authorization of the medical director of the blood bank per Title 10 of New York Codes, Rules and Regulations (NYCRR), Section 58-2.3(d). However, every attempt should be made to review the results of maternal antepartum infectious disease testing in order to avoid transfusion transmission of an infectious disease (e.g., HIV) to an infant who may not have contracted it already because of maternal treatment during pregnancy or other protective factors.

In the case of antepartum maternal donation, all routine tests appropriate for neonatal transfusions should be performed, and the unit transfused, provided it meets standard criteria for allogeneic donation (donors and recipients are different individuals), as well as those specific to the neonatal period.

F. Granulocyte Transfusions

At present, the relative efficacy of granulocyte transfusions compared to appropriate available antibiotic therapy is controversial. Granulocytes may be considered under the following four circumstances:

1. bacterial sepsis unresponsive to antibiotics in infants under 2 weeks of age with neutrophil-plus-band counts <3,000/µL (3 x 10⁹/L);
2. bacterial sepsis unresponsive to antibiotics in infants greater than 2 weeks of age with neutrophil-plus-band counts <500/µL (0.5 x 10⁹/L);
3. fungal infection and neutropenia as defined in #1 and # 2 above; and
4. documented infection unresponsive to antibiotics in the presence of a qualitative neutrophil defect, regardless of the neutrophil-plus-band count.

Note: Granulocyte concentrates usually carry significant red blood cell contamination. They should be ABO- and crossmatch-compatible and Rh-negative or Rh-identical with the infant and should lack any significant red cell antigen to which significant maternal alloantibodies are still detectable. The concentrate should be CMV-safe and irradiated. It should not be transfused within four to six hours of administration of the anti-fungal agent amphotericin B, in order to minimize the potential for adverse pulmonary reactions.

G. Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP) Transfusions - Indications

1. reconstitution of red blood cells for exchange transfusion or other massive transfusion;
2. coagulation factor deficiency, with bleeding, or prior to invasive procedures or surgery, if specific factor replacement is not possible;
3. vitamin K deficiency resulting in a coagulopathy, with bleeding, or prior to invasive procedures or surgery;
4. thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), congenital or acquired;
5. replacement therapy in congenital antithrombin III deficiency, protein C deficiency or protein S deficiency, when specific factor replacement is not available; and
6. clinical evidence of coagulopathy whenever laboratory results are pending.

Note: Prophylactic treatment with FFP transfusion is not appropriate, except prior to invasive procedures or surgery, in the presence of significant congenital or acquired factor deficiency(ies).

H. Cryoprecipitate Transfusions - Indications

1. von Willebrand disease, with bleeding, prior to invasive procedures; or preoperatively whenever desmopressin acetate (DDAVP) is contraindicated, unavailable or does not elicit the desired response; and whenever viral-inactivated factor concentrate containing von Willebrand factor is not available;
2. hypofibrinogenemia or dysfibrinogenemia, with bleeding or preoperatively; and
3. replacement therapy in factor XIII deficiency.

Note: DDAVP therapy should be considered for patients with mild or moderate hemophilia A or von Willebrand disease (dose: 0.3 micrograms/kg). Documentation of response to DDAVP should be considered prior to use in invasive procedures.

III. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. RBC Age, Preservatives, Hemoglobin S Status

Packed RBCs of any age are acceptable for small-volume "anemia" transfusions (approximately 15 mL/kg), unless there is a specific concern about hyperkalemia, which is generally not a problem for transfusions ≤ 25 mL/kg.

In case of concern about renal insufficiency or hyperkalemia in a patient who is to receive a larger-volume and/or rapid transfusion (e.g., during surgery) of RBCs irradiated prior to storage, it may be advisable to obtain RBCs fresher than seven-daysold, use washed RBCs, centrifuge the RBCs and discard the supernatant, and/or lower the rate of infusion. It also may be advisable to avoid large-volume or rapid transfusion of stored irradiated RBCs through central lines. Insufficient published data are available on the safety of stored irradiated RBCs for either large- or smallvolume transfusions, but calculations suggest that these are acceptable for smallvolume transfusions (i.e., those ≤ 25 mL/kg) even at the 28-day expiration date of such cells.

For an infant who requires multiple small-volume transfusions, it is desirable to minimize the number of donor exposures by aliquoting the same unit repeatedly, using a sterile connecting device.

Red blood cell preservatives acceptable for small-volume transfusions include CPD; CPDA-1; and additive solutions containing additional adenine, dextrose, and, in some cases, mannitol. The safety of additive solutions for massive or exchange transfusions has not yet been established in this country. For multiple transfusions of preterm neonates with severe renal insufficiency, it may also be desirable to remove the supernatant, containing plasma and preservatives, or to use washed RBCs.

The suggestion for the use of hemoglobin S-negative RBCs in infants, in some literature, is based on case reports. This parameter probably is most important in exchange transfusions, and in other large-volume and/or rapid transfusions, as well as for transfusions in hypoxemic neonates. For convenience and maximum flexibility, many facilities that routinely transfuse infants stock a number of group O Rh-negative, irradiated, hemoglobin S-negative, CMV-safe units. Such units are suitable for transfusing most infants, except those with specific non-ABO red cell antibodies, and they can be modified as desired for individual patients.

B. Cytomegalovirus

Cellular blood components from CMV-seropositive donors may contain residual leukocytes that may be infectious to seronegative infants. CMV-safe cellular components (RBCs and platelets) should be provided to infants who weighed <1,200 g at birth or who are immunocompromised, AND whose mothers are either seronegative or whose serostatus is unknown. Any infant who is at risk for transfusiontransmitted CMV for any reason should receive seronegative or leukoreduced cellular blood components as well.

Notes: The CMV serostatus of chronically transfused infants should be checked monthly if initially seronegative.

Use of CMV-seronegative or leukoreduced cellular components decreases the risk of CMV transmission. There are conflicting data on the efficacy of CMV-seronegative vs. leukoreduced cellular blood components for prevention of CMV transmission by transfusion.

C. Irradiated Blood Components

Transfusion-associated graft-vs-host disease (GVHD) has been reported in infants transfused with cellular blood components. The risks of GVHD in preterm infants who have received a small-volume transfusion of RBCs or platelets are unknown, although cases have been documented. Irradiation of cellular blood components with a minimum of 2,500 rad (25 Gy) is recommended for the following:

1. premature infants <1200g birthweight;
2. infants with known or suspected congenital immunodeficiency syndromes;
3. infants receiving granulocyte transfusions;
4. infants receiving directed donor blood components from blood relatives, or when the infant and donor are members of the same genetically homogeneous group;
5. infants receiving HLA-matched or platelet crossmatch-compatible platelets;
6. infants undergoing stem cell transplants (the stem cell product itself must not be irradiated);

   Note: Post-transplant patients should continue to receive irradiated blood components until the patient's physician determines that the patient has recovered immunologically and has demonstrated evidence of immune competence, either by post-vaccination titers or by immunologic assays.

7. infants undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, chemotherapy or radiotherapy;
8. infants receiving exchange transfusions;
9. fetuses receiving intrauterine transfusions; and
10. infants receiving large volumes of RBCs in association with ECMO.

D. Recommendations for Blood Component Administration

1. Filtration: All RBC, platelet and plasma transfusions, to infants as well as to adults, must be administered through an appropriate blood filter, either a standard blood filter (80-260µ), or microaggregate filter (20-40µ), which traps microaggregates of cell debris and fibrin strands. Hemolysis has been reported in infants given stored blood by negative pressure filtration through microaggregate filters.

   Pediatric filters can be inserted into the plastic dispensing bag to allow the filtered component to be drawn into a syringe. Some pediatric filters also feature a burette device for measuring the volume transfused.

   Granulocyte transfusions should be administered only through a standard blood filter; a microaggregate or leukocyte reduction filter should never be used for granulocyte components. A cryoprecipitate infusion set may minimize the loss of components because of smaller priming volume in the tubing.

2. Leukoreduction: Whenever leukoreduced components have been stored, a standard blood filter should be used for administration.

   Note: The effectiveness of a leukoreduction filtration device in preventing leukocyte alloimmunization and febrile transfusion reactions, already established in adults receiving transfusions, has yet to be demonstrated in the infant population, at least partly because such events are so uncommon in this group.

3. Infusion chambers: Since administration of blood components to infants is generally volume specific, it should be performed using a calibrated chamber device. The chamber may be in the form of a syringe or closed infusion set, such as a volumetric buretrol. If a syringe is used, the volume of blood component to be administered may be aspirated through a blood filter administration set attached to the component unit. Blood infused should be limited to a four-hour supply.

   Infusion pumps: Several available mechanical monitoring syringe pump devices allow constant infusion from a syringe with accurate rate- and volume-controlled delivery. Syringe pumps are suitable for volumes from 10 to 50 mL. Smaller volume transfusions, typically under 10 mL per episode, are usually given manually with a syringe containing a prefiltered blood component. Volumes larger than 50 mL are usually contained within a blood bag or transfer pack, and transfused either with a calibrated infusion pump or through an infusion set with a calibrated infusate chamber reservoir, such as a buretrol.

   The advantages of electronic infusion devices include such features as flow monitoring, an alarm for high-pressure inflow status, and accurate infusion rate. Many electric infusion pumps are also battery-powered, allowing for patient portability. Infusion pumps require periodic monitoring for flow rate accuracy and possible hemolysis.

   Pumps to be used for infusion of blood components must be approved by the director of the transfusion service.

4. Blood warming devices and phototherapy precautions: All blood components to be transfused to infants should be as close as possible to room temperature, especially if infused through a central venous line. The small volume of blood usually transfused to infants generally makes impractical mechanical blood warmers, which require large volumes to pass through the warming coils. For most small-volume infant transfusions, blood components may be warmed passively by placing in a temperature-controlled isolette, or at room temperature, for approximately 30 minutes prior to transfusion. Blood components should never be warmed directly, as in hot water, although warmed saline may be added using an FDA-approved system. Whenever transfusions are given during phototherapy, the tubing should be placed so as to minimize its exposure to the phototherapy light.

   Note: Microwave devices designed for thawing frozen components should not be used for warming cellular components.

   Blood warmers: Large-volume transfusion of infants, such as exchange transfusions or transfusions during surgery, should be performed with a blood warmer to avoid hypothermia in the infant. Prewarmed syringe aliquots may also be taken from the exit port of a standard blood warming device.

5. Transfusion flow rates: The rate of transfusion depends upon the component, the total volume to be infused, venous access characteristics and the infant's intravascular fluid tolerance.

   As a general rule, small transfusions under 20 mL do not require a pump and may be pushed in via a syringe by intermittent small bolus, taking into consideration the volume-tolerance of the infant. Larger-volume transfusions should be administered by an infusion device, within two to four hours. If the transfusion interval is to exceed four hours, the blood component should be subdivided, and its second portion stored in the blood bank until needed.

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   The following infusion flow rates are commonly used:

   RBC: 3-5 mL/kg/hour;

   FFP: within 30 minutes, provided the volume does not exceed 5-10 mL/kg; and

   Platelets: within 30 minutes. It is seldom necessary to reduce the volume of the platelet concentrate if the dose does not exceed 5-10 mL/kg; for volumes greater than 10 mL/kg, centrifuge to remove all but 10-15 mL of the plasma from a unit of whole blood-derived platelets, and/or proportionately somewhat more from a pool or apheresis unit (see pg. 12, #8).

6. Monitoring transfusions for complications and reactions: Transfusions should be administered in monitored settings, usually in a special care nursery where monitoring is routine. Blood glucose should be checked hourly if glucose infusion was interrupted during transfusion, since hypoglycemia may occur suddenly.

   Infusion should be stopped, the infant evaluated clinically, and the situation assessed by the blood bank if any of the following develop during the transfusion:

   a. apnea, tachypnea, or respiratory distress;
   b. tachycardia, bradycardia, or arrhythmia;
   c. cyanosis;
   d. significant change in systolic blood pressure;
   e. significant increase or decrease (>1 degree Celsius or > 2 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature; and/or
   f. hemoglobinuria.

   Note: Infants may not manifest a rise in temperature during a transfusion reaction because decreased insulation by body fat, decreased muscle mass, and large body weight/surface area ratio make it more difficult for infants to maintain and raise their temperature as compared to older children.

   Whenever a hemolytic transfusion reaction is suspected, posttransfusion specimens of blood and urine should undergo a transfusion reaction evaluation in the blood bank.

7. Vascular access in infants: Vascular access may present difficulties in small infants. Typically, venous access is gained by using small standard intravenous catheters or "butterfly" type needles. These devices, generally ranging in size from 21- to 27-gauge, have been shown to be effective and to cause no significant hemolysis. However, small caliber devices limit the rate of infusion and the amount of infusion pressure that can be applied, particularly with electronic infusion pumps.

   The umbilical vein and other central veins should not be accessed for routine transfusion, except for exchange transfusions, because of the possibility of infection and thrombosis. However, in neonatal intensive care units, the umbilical vein is commonly catheterized in very sick infants within 48 hours of birth. On rare occasions, venous "cut-downs" may be employed in order to attain vascular access, particularly for long-term care infants, but percutaneous indwelling catheter lines have largely replaced these (see pg. 8, III.A.).

8. Volume reduction: Small infants often cannot tolerate large transfusion volumes because of limited circulatory capacity. Therefore, the volume of the transfusate may need to be reduced. Volume reduction of cellular components can be achieved by centrifugation and expression of the supernatant prior to transfusion. However, volume reduction techniques for platelet components may result in platelet loss and are seldom necessary because the usual dose of 5-10 mL/kg can usually be tolerated. Concentrated platelet components should rest at room temperature for one hour without agitation prior to resuspension to maximize function. Careful consideration should be given to the functional capacity and delay in availability of volume-reduced platelets. There should be a valid medical reason for removing the plasma (e.g., the presence of maternal anti-platelet antibodies). Such platelets must not be stored for more than two to four hours.

E. Minimizing Donor Exposure in Infants

Infant exposure to allogeneic blood may be minimized by limiting transfusions to strictly appropriate indications, so that the benefits outweigh the risks. If a transfusion is required, a blood aliquot technique should be used whenever possible.

1. Blood aliquot techniques: Using a quadruple pack (quad set), a unit of packed RBCs may be aliquotted into satellite bags within a closed system, thereby preserving the original component expiration date. Each of the satellite packs may be utilized as needed, either for a single infant requiring multiple transfusions or for more than one infant. Other systems employ small (20-60 mL) satellite transfer packs that can be filled with blood from a particular blood unit utilizing a sterile docking device. These devices allow aseptic thermal welding of two segments of blood or infusion tubing, thereby maintaining the sterility and original outdate of the blood component. The "freshness" of blood is a lesser concern than the risks of additional donor exposure, and aliquots from the same unit may be used until its expiration date.

   Individual syringe aliquots may also be obtained from RBC units, either through the use of an injection port placed in the blood component unit or by connecting to the outflow end of a blood infusion set with an in-line filter. Once an RBC component unit is entered, the syringe aliquot and the remaining component will expire in 24 hours. Until dispensed, RBC aliquots should be stored at 1 - 6 degrees Celsius in a temperature-monitored refrigerator.

   Individual syringe aliquots of platelets may be obtained from a platelet unit immediately prior to transfusion.

2. Blood relatives as donors: Use of maternal blood for transfusion is not recommended in the absence of a specific valid medical indication, and blood from the father and other relatives holds no advantage. Directed donation from all blood relatives, including the mother, carries an added risk of immune complications, such as alloimmunization to HLA antigens and transfusion-associated graft-vs-host disease. It is important to irradiate cellular components from all blood relatives, and whenever the recipient and the donor are members of the same genetically homogeneous group, to avoid the latter complication.
3. Small aliquot donors: Some centers utilize blood from individuals of a blood group compatible with the recipient infant's. Small units or half-units may be donated by a single donor at repeated intervals during an eight-week period, provided the total volume collected does not exceed 550 mL. Collection of blood in volumes under 300 mL requires proportional adjustment of the anticoagulant in the collection bag. In this manner, single-donor RBCs may be made available to particular infants on an as-needed basis.

   Note: Small aliquot donors must fulfill all requirements for allogeneic donors, including testing. See 10 NYCRR Sections 58-2.2 and 58-2.3.

APPENDIX

(Reprinted, with permission of Blackwell Publishing, Ltd., from Roseff SD, Luban NLC, Manno CS. Guidelines for assessing appropriateness of pediatric transfusion. Transfusion 2002;42:1398-413.)

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Strauss RG, Levy GJ, Sotelo-Avila C, et al. National survey of neonatal transfusion practices: II. Blood component therapy. Pediatrics 1993;91:530-6.

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COMMITTEE MEMBERS

NEW YORK STATE
COUNCIL ON HUMAN BLOOD AND TRANSFUSION SERVICES

Membership Roster - 2004

* Member, Guideline Working Group

NEW YORK STATE
COUNCIL ON HUMAN BLOOD AND TRANSFUSION SERVICES

BLOOD SERVICES COMMITTEE

Membership Roster - 2004

Consultants

^† Guideline Working Group Chairperson

* Member, Guideline Working Group

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Requests for copies of this publication may be directed to:
Blood and Tissue Resources Program
New York State Department of Health
Wadsworth Center
Empire State Plaza
P.O. Box 509
Albany, New York 12201-0509
Telephone: (518) 485-5341
Fax: (518) 485-5342
E-mail: btraxess@health.state.ny.us.
Website:www.wadsworth.org/labcert/blood_tissue.